Samantha Pickens Literature Review

I commented on Alex Barrett's literature review of the Social Cognitive Learning Theory and Pat Siemek's literature review on Embodied Learning.

The Role of Spiritual Learning in Adult Education: A Literature Review

Samantha Pickens

Ball State University

EDAC 634 – The Adult as a Learner

31 January 2015

Abstract

This review explores the published literature on spiritual learning in adult education.  These references include scholarly journal articles and a comprehensive text on learning in adulthood.  The sources dive into the learning theory of spiritual learning through its background and general themes contained within spiritual learning and adult education.  The importance of this topic comes in the gaining popularity of spiritual practices like meditation, yoga, and prayer for physical health.  Professionals have even been advocating for increased value on the expression of spirituality in the workplace.  The paper concludes with implication of spiritual learning in practice within the field of adult education.  These suggestions will be directly applicable to the work in the field.  Spiritual intelligence assists in problem solving matters of meaning and value (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). 

            Keywords: spiritual learning

The Role of Spiritual Learning in Adult Education:
A Literature Review

Introduction

“Spirituality… is more personal belief and experience of a divine spirit or higher purpose, about how we construct meaning, and what we individually and communally experience and attend to and honor as the sacred in our lives” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 200).  The definition of spiritual education is not concrete as there are a number of concepts and words that spirituality is synonymous with (Zinn, 1997).  Regardless of definition or practice, spiritual learning is part of adult learning theory and its importance and implications for practice should be discussed.  The literature shows many themes and generalizations of spiritual learning in current scholarly works.

Current practice in adult education already incorporates spirituality into learning.  Intentionally in curriculum, or on the part of the students, meaning is attached to learning from life experience, including feelings and interpretations of information.  One example of this is in an adult basic education class focused on literacy and teaching adults to read and write.  Spirituality is evident because the program not only helps the adult learn to read, or to read better, it boosts self-confidence and image of self, and increases mood and spirit.  In addition, many times the motivator for an adult to learn to read is because they want to be able to read and study religious text (Zinn, 1997). 

Spirituality and adult education are tied together fundamentally.  From the variety of literature reviewed, four general themes have stood out as basic fundamentals in spiritual learning and its role in adult education.  The first theme is that spirituality is more than just its dictionary definition.  There are a number of concepts and ideas and theories that connect to spirituality to make it what it is.  Secondly, education already incorporates spirituality in curriculum and practice because it is a large part of the life of the adult learner.  Without knowing it, many lessons and activities play on creating and understanding meaning.  The third theme is that in order for spirituality to be intentionally present in learning, there needs to be the right environment to foster meaning and value.  Finally, spirituality emphasizes the importance of relationships; more so than straight-forward education promotes or allows for.  These relationships assist individuals in understanding meaning and are both a cause of spiritual experiences, and a result of spirituality.  These four themes will help professionals connect literature to implications for practice and concrete examples of how spirituality can be consciously acknowledged in adult education.

General Themes

Definition

Spirituality as a term or concept was originally a translation of the Greek word, pnuematikos, and was born somewhere between 1375 and 1425.  It was not originally the idea of religion or grace or faith, but a term that meant invisibility and power (Milacci, 2006).  Now the Webster’s Dictionary definition of spirituality is “the quality or fact of being spiritual; incorporeal immaterial nature; predominately spiritual character as shown in thought, life, etc.; spiritual tendency or tone; pertain[ing] to the spirit or soul, as distinguished from the physical nature” (Milacci, 2006, p. 213).   This definition synopsis comes from Moving Toward Faith; a predominately religious-based spiritual learning published work.  But the current definition of spiritual learning incorporates some of the original translation, the current dictionary definition, and is inclusive of a variety of other thoughts, feelings, ideas, and concepts and leaves room for religion as well as secular themes.

Faith and spirituality have been used in similar contexts.  The two terms are not always synonymous but are closely related (Milacci, 2006).  Faith development is a life-long process, and the same could be said for spiritual development.  In Tisdell’s update on spirituality, she suggest that Fowler’s six stage process for faith development draws on stages three through five as most relevant to adult spiritual development, with the final stage being rarer to achieve.  “Stage 3 (conventional faith) is a ‘conformist’ stage; Stage 4 (individuative-reflective faith) is more critically reflective, individuated, and less prone to accept outside answers; and Stage 5 (conjunctive faith) is, in addition to being critically reflective, tuned into the power of symbols and images as a form of knowledge” (Tisdell, 1999, p. 90).  These three stages will be the most important to understand when intentionally recognizing spirituality in adult education.  These three stages, or any stage in spiritual development, will be reflected in the beliefs and understanding of the adult student.

Education

            Nurturing the mind and spirit is the cornerstone of adult education.  The liberal arts are as relevant as the sciences and are just as popular in formal learning.  The arts are meant to invoke meaning from beauty of creation, nature, or expression of feelings.  Professional development as well is influenced by the values and beliefs of the professional.  As teachers, individuals live by their own system of beliefs, that are influenced by experience and training, on how best to education children and adults (Zinn, 1997).  All the current facets of education have relation to spiritual learning.  Even the sciences allow room for discovering and understanding of concepts and theories.

            Some educational views of spirituality are focused on the religious aspect.  Modern spiritual learning encompasses a variety of ideas, but the original spirituality was connected to religion.  However, the concept of spiritual learning, minus the religious teachings, is the same in all education.  The limitation of the religious published work, Moving Towards Faith by Milacci, is that it is strictly focused on Christian religion, as are its participants, so the research is biased towards religion and eliminates other possible implications for spiritual learning (2006).  But similarly to prayer, individual spiritual learning is not something that can be controlled.  Prayer is an intangible concept, and while schools have banned prayer, no one can physically control it (Milacci, 2006).  Spiritual learning in adult education is similar because the process is natural and intangible.

Openness

            Spiritual learning and the meaning and emotions and images conjured by the adult learner are a natural process.  The strictness of formal learning, testing, grades, and control can often promote recitation of information, not the personal experience of spiritual learning.  Current practice of Early Childhood Education is that standardized testing for young children is not an effective way to teach or assess because the test requires memorization and for a child to learn a concept, they must be able to understand, internalize, and use those concepts.  The same goes for adult learners.  To foster spirituality, the learning environment should foster imagination, creativity, openness, and respect.  As noted in Learning in Adulthood, the work of the teacher is more than just to share information.  A teacher’s job is to share in the growth of the student and to teach in a manner that respects and cares for the individual.  Three aspects of a sacred space for spiritual learning are also outlined in the text; dialogue, respect, and accountability (Merriam et al., 2007).

Relationships

Relationships are a key aspect of spiritual learning.  As all of these themes are connected in spiritual learning, relationships with others offer the same benefits and are similarly a result of spiritual learning.  Care and concern for others are vital for authentic spirituality; adults benefit from safe and supportive relationships with others (English, 2000).  Relationships help learners to get other perspectives and connect to peers.  Spiritual learning also creates relationships because of the connection between learners and educators.

“Mentoring is the personal and professional assistance that one adult (the mentor) provides to another, less experienced adult (the mentee)” (English, 2000, p. 30).  Mentoring is one specific type of relationship that really encompasses the connection between education and spiritual learning.  In a mentoring relationship, the mentor is not just disseminating information as if in a classroom, the relationship is expanded for the mentor to be a guiding hand for the life aspirations, goals, and self-actualization of the mentee.  This type of relationship is one that is often seen in religious spiritual practice as well; in many instances a younger less experienced member of a church will receive some religious and life instruction and guidance from an older member of the church, sometimes a church leader.  The mentoring relationship is mutually beneficial to both parties because it allows both parties to grow in their understanding (English, 2000).

Implications

            The trend in education tends to be that spirituality is a taboo subject, as it is often tied to religion.  But secular instruction does not need to tiptoe around spirituality because it is not singularly synonymous to religion.  In formal or informal courses, discussions centered on feelings, experiences, and meanings tied to both are in fact, spiritual in nature (Tisdell, 2008).  Classroom discussions can be open and honest to facilitate spiritual learning. 

            An example of spiritual learning in adult education that is currently personal relevant is the construction of a master’s program.  In such programs, adult students are expected to utilize information from the course in their workplace.  Curriculums for such courses ask adult learners to tailor and complete projects that have personal meaning and value.  These projects often reflect personal commitment or interest in social issues or important concepts in their own field (English, 2000).

            In the classroom, teachers can connect course curriculum with the personal experiences of the adult learner.  The learning environment is crucial to fostering spiritual education.  The teacher is accountable for caring for and respecting students and providing the right conditions for learning.  The space should be one where adult learners can listen to others’ experiences without judgment.  As many educators already know, lesson plans should be the best they can be, but the teacher also needs to be able to abandon them in favor of flexibility.  This is important because spiritual learning comes naturally and spontaneously, regardless of what the lesson plan expects (Merriam et al., 2007). 

            As part of that natural process of spiritual learning, relationships often form.  Relationships as a spiritual practice enhance self-disciple, control of ego, and engagement between individuals is an important classroom dynamic.  This kind of intentional learning is one that forms naturally, but can also be fueled through curriculum.  Adult learners should be encouraged to form relationships with professors, peers, mentors, and professionals to broaden their experiences and to encourage connections between people with similar values, beliefs, and interests (English, 2000).  Intentionally placing students together to facilitate these connection, or enforcing an open door policy are ways to keep the door open for spiritual learning to occur and relationships to form.

Conclusion

Spirituality encompasses the non-concrete concepts, relationships, and ideas that influence adult learners.  The beliefs and traditions that stem from spiritual upbringing helps to motivate work towards social justice, understand and sympathize with others, and develop life-long relationships.  All meaning is connected to spirituality (Zinn, 1997).  All of the literature has hinted to the fact that spirituality cannot be taught.  Significant and spiritual learning comes naturally through communication with others, open and respectful settings, intentional (and unintentional) curriculum plans, and is deeply connected to the experiences of the adult learner.  Appendix A shows the general themes that have been discussed as well as the implications for practice related to spiritual learning.  Even though it is often overlooked, the value of spirituality in adult learning should not be underestimated.

Appendix A

Table 1. Summary of literature review

	The main themes/ideas in the literature	Application of the main ideas in practice
Idea 1	The definition of spirituality is multifaceted.  Spirituality is connected to religion, but also to faith, construction of meaning, understanding of symbols, understanding of life experience, emotion and expression, and creativity.	Spirituality does not need to be a taboo subject because it is related only in one facet to religion.  In practice, spirituality in the classroom is shown through examining the significance of experiences, and the way that values and beliefs motivate our actions.
Idea 2	Spirituality and adult education are fundamentally connected.  Even early reports of spiritual learning were adult education for religious teachings.  In formal or informal courses, discussions centered on feelings, experiences, and meanings tied to both are in fact, spiritual in nature.	Curriculum for courses should allow adult learners to tailor and complete projects that have personal meaning and value.  These projects often reflect personal commitment or interest in social issues or important concepts in their own field.
Idea 3	Incorporating spirituality into adult education is dependent on the environment of learning.  Openness, creativity, room for expression, and acceptance all foster spiritual learning where the learner embraces the knowledge and internalizes it.	The teacher is accountable for caring for and respecting students and providing the right conditions for learning.  The space should be one where adult learners can listen to others’ experiences without judgment.  As many educators already know, lesson plans should be the best they can be, but the teacher also needs to be able to abandon them in favor of flexibility.  This is important because spiritual learning comes naturally and spontaneously.
Idea 4	Relationships have been proven to be important in education.  Spirituality aids in the formation and continuation of relationships.   Relationships are mutually beneficial for all parties as individuals care, respect, and hold concern for others.	Adult learners should be encouraged to form relationships with professors, peers, mentors, and professionals to broaden their experiences and to encourage connections between people with similar values, beliefs, and interests.

References

English, L. M. (2000). Spiritual dimensions of informal learning.  New Directions for Adult &        Continuing Education, 2000(85), 29.

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A           comprehensive guide, (pp207-216) Jossey-Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA.

Milacci, F. (2006).  Moving towards faith: An inquiry into spirituality in adult education.            Christian Higher Education, 5(3), 211-233.  doi: 10.1080/15363750500408157.

Tisdell, E. J. (2008). Spirituality and adult learning.  New Directions for Adult & Continuing             Education, 2008(119), 27-36. doi: 10.1002/ace.303.

Tisdell, E. J. (1999). The spiritual dimension of adult development.  New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 1999(84), 87.

Zinn, L. M. (1997, May).  Spirituality in adult education.  Adult Learning, 8(5/6), 26.